Developmental Advising

Annotated Bibliography
for research published prior to 1999

Bibliography compiled by George Steele and Melinda McDonald. Annotated bibliographies of recent literature are published in each NACADA Journal. Find out how to obtain full text of ERIC documents at http://www.askeric.org/Eric/Help/obtain.shtml

Abel, J. (1988). Developmental advising through life roles: Leisure and leadership. NACADA
Journal, 8, 17-26.

Expanding developmental advising through life roles offers the opportunity for advising to
realize its potential as a developmental and integrating force in higher education. The author
suggests a model for moving into these life roles as well as ideas for academic advisors to
use in incorporating leisure and leadership perspectives into their advising.

Arbuckle, J. & Gale, D. (1996). A comparison of the psychosocial developmental levels of
traditional freshman and nonfreshman students: Are they really different? NACADA
Journal, 16, 21-27.

Data collected during new-student orientation on nontraditional-age and traditional-age
first-time students indicated more psychosocial similarities than differences between them.
Results suggest that first-entry nontraditional students experience some of the same needs
and concerns in higher education as do their younger peers. Referrals to existing advising
services may help the students overcome discouragements and barriers.

Archer, J., Jr., Probert, B. S., & Gage, L. (1987). College students' attitudes toward wellness.
Journal of College Student Personnel, 28, 311-317.

The authors examine student perceptions of six wellness dimensions: physical, emotional,
spiritual, occupational, social and intellectual. The results revealed that students believed
that all dimensions had an effect on their overall wellness, though certain dimensions were
considered more important than others. The physical and emotional dimensions were ranked
highly, while the spiritual dimension was ranked relatively low. In deciding whether
Hettler's model would be of good use to other institutions in developing wellness programs
it is necessary to assess the perceived importance, need for assistance, and personal wellness
for each dimension.

Baack, J. E., et al. (1981). Student development mentoring-transcript project. Journal of College
Student Personnel, 22, 167-168.

In this study, an office of student affairs developed a process that provided undergraduate
students with a more systematic method of achieving personal development objectives. Each
student worked with a student development mentor (volunteer student affairs educators, and
faculty members). Students explored new learning experiences within six broad areas of
personal development: 1) personal identity and lifestyle, 2) multi-cultural awareness, 3)
interpersonal competencies and relationships, 4) academic skills and intellectual
competencies, 5) aesthetic awareness, and 6) health, physical fitness and recreation.

Baird, L. L. (1995). Helping graduate students: A graduate adviser's view. New Directions for
Student Services, 72, 25-32.

Considers the various roles that a faculty advisers plays in the three identified stages of a
student's graduate education: beginning, middle, and the dissertation stage. Looks at each
stage as a process of educational and developmental change. Focuses on faculty sponsorship,
peers, financial assistance, intellectual interests, comprehensive exams, and ongoing
encouragement.

Beasley-Fielstein, L. (1986). Student perceptions of the developmental adviser-advisee relationship. NACADA Journal, 6, 107-117.

The quality of the student-faculty interaction in academic advising is a major contributing
variable to institutional holding power. Students were surveyed for the type of relationship
that was most productive, qualitative and satisfying for them. Student development theory
in advising was explored. In general, the students who were satisfied thought that their
advisors were accessible, generous with their time, took a personal interest in students, and
acted quickly to resolve student problems. Among the suggestions made by the dissatisfied
students to improve the advisor-advisee relationship were requiring mandatory meetings with
the advisor, maintaining continuity with the same advisor, and reserving more time for
students.

Bender, D. S. (1997). Effects of study skills programs on the academic behaviors of college
students. Paper presented at the 20th Annual Meeting of the Eastern Educational Research
Association, Hilton Head, SC. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 406 897)

This study investigated the effects of a study skills course combined with or without
class-specific tutoring, and whether or not faculty would be able to observe differences in
behavior of high risk students as a result of student participation in the two different levels
of intervention. Students (n=22) in the College Skills Development Program (CSDP), a
comprehensive developmental studies program that consists of a study skills course with
required attendance at tutoring sessions, were compared to students (n=30) who voluntarily
enrolled in a study skills course and to a control group (n=21). Students were compared with
regard to grade point average (GPA) and faculty perceptions of academic behaviors.
Achievement was found to be greater for the students in the comprehensive program and the
faculty reported a greater number of positive behaviors on the part of these students in their
classes. A significant correlation between GPA and the instrument used to elicit faculty
perceptions indicated the validity of this type of assessment in measuring successful
academic behaviors. A one-way analysis of variance indicated that the three groups of
students differed in terms of predicted GPA and how their actual performances compared
to their predicted achievement. The CSDP group that combined study skills course with
academic tutoring had the best academic achievement. The faculty questionnaire is
appended.

Borders, L. D. (1989). A pragmatic agenda for developmental supervision research. Counselor
Education and Supervision, 29, 16-24.

Proposes pragmatic agenda for future developmental supervision research and a
"moratorium" on new or improved developmental supervision models, self-reports, and on
research limited to academic settings. Encourages researchers to explore pragmatic questions
about actual conduct of effective counseling supervision.

Bostaph, C., & Moore, M. (1980). Training academic advisors: A developmental strategy. Journal
of College Student Personnel, 21, 45-50.

The issue of academic advising is crucial to American higher education today. Suddenly it
requires reevaluation and added attention. Studies have shown that academic advising is
perceived as unsatisfactory by many students. A strategy for training advisors should include
an adequate reward system, a viable in-service training program, and a developmental
approach to advising.

Brabeck, M. M., & Welfel, E. R. (1985). Counseling theory: Understanding the trend toward
eclecticism from a developmental perspective. Journal of Counseling & Development, 63,
343-55.

Four articles pertain to the trend toward eclecticism in counseling psychology. Articles are
by Mary Brabeck and Elizabeth Welfel, C. H. Patterson, and Joseph Rychlak.
Examines eclecticism in counseling from a developmental perspective. Suggests that an
individual's view of eclecticism may be influenced by his/her level of intellectual
development. Discusses two types of eclecticism: one recognizes alternatives and the other
seeks to limit them. Includes comments and further suggestions by other authors and a
rejoinder.

Brigham, T. A. (February, 1994). Excel: An intensive and structured program of advising and
academic support to assist minority freshmen to succeed at a large state university.
Paper presented at the 13th Annual Freshman Year Experience Conference, Columbia, SC.
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 369 375)

This paper describes an academic assistance program designed to help ethnic minority
students adjust to the demands of university life and succeed both academically and
personally. The Excel program has three major components: a two-semester, two-credit core
seminar; weekly instructional support groups; and peer led tutorial/discussion groups. The
results of the first 2 years of the program are presented in which 62 at-risk Excel students had
their performance compared to other minority and majority freshmen at Washington State
University. These comparison studies show the Excel students performed significantly better
than other students from minority groups and equal to or better than majority students. The
lessons from this experience indicate that minority students on majority campuses need to
be both challenged and encouraged to compete academically with their majority peers as well
as to develop and pursue their own goals. The program's results are discussed in terms of the
variables that appear to affect minority student success at large universities. The appendix
provides the grading procedures for two psychology classes. Contains 22 references.

Broadbridge, A. (1996). Academic advising--traditional or developmental approaches?:
Student perspectives. British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, 24, 97-111.

Explores two approaches to academic advising schemes: traditional and developmental
approaches. The role of the adviser of studies system is examined and applied to one U.K.
institution of higher education. Empirical research involving group discussions with
final-year undergraduate students was conducted to assess the role of the advising scheme.
Students appear to favor a developmental approach to academic advising.

Brown, S. D., et al. (1988). Perceived social support among college students: Factor structure of
the social support inventory. Journal of Counseling Psychology,35, 472-478.

The authors developed a measure of perceived social support based on a person-environment
fit model of satisfaction. This measure, the Social Support Inventory(SSI), was scored
according to a model of person-environment fit that assumed that only an undersupply of
resources for meeting social needs would result in dissatisfaction. The authors tested this
assumption empirically by comparing the original scoring model with three alternative
models. The study also explored the factor structure of the SSI. Results supported the
original scoring model, and suggested the presence of five social support factors on the SSI.
The authors discuss the limitations of the study and future research needs of the SSI and the
person-environment fit model.

Brown, T., & Rivas, M. (1992). Advising multicultural populations for achievement and success
. New Directions for Community Colleges, 21, 83-96.

Argues for a developmental approach in the academic advising of ethnic minorities at
two-year colleges. Identifies challenges in developmental advising, including cultural
differences, values conflicts, and identity development. Reviews academic intervention
strategies for minority students.

Bruce, P. (1984). Continuum of counseling goals: A framework for differentiating counseling
strategies. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 62, 259-63.

Presents counseling goals in a developmental continuum similar in concept to Maslow's
hierarchy of needs. Discusses ego development goals, socialization goals, developmental
goals, self-esteem goals, and self-realization goals and describes characteristics and
implications of the continuum.

Cairo, T. A. (1992). Applications of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator with returning adult students. Journal of Continuing Higher Education, 40, 25-28.

The Myers Briggs Type Indicator can be a helpful tool for enabling returning adult students
to know themselves and for enhancing student development. It should be used appropriately
as part of a comprehensive plan for holistic academic advising.

Carberry, J., Baker, M., Prescott, D. (1986). Applying cognitive development theory in the advising setting. NACADA Journal 6, 13-18.

One is best able to teach when familiar with student needs and experiences. Cognitive
developmental theory can enhance the "art of teaching" and understanding the cognitive
stages of student development can help the adviser appreciate a student's perspective.
Cognitive theory is translated into useful advising strategies. For advisors, the key is to
provide both support and challenge, because students who are prematurely exposed to higher stages of development often respond negatively. Through the careful recommendation of alternative courses and structured activities, advisors can facilitate a student's progress to
higher cognitive stages.

Carroll, B. W. & Tarasuk, P. E. (1991). A new vision for student development services for the 90s. Community College Review, 19, 32-42.

Presents a comprehensive model of development guidance and counseling for community
colleges. Reviews historic trends and recent changes in community college counseling,
highlighting issues related to role confusion and changing focus. Describes counselor roles
and program components (i.e., individual planning, guidance curriculum, responsive
services, and program management).

Chambliss, C. (1989). Comprehensive freshman advising. The Ursinus College Freshman Advising Program: Three-year follow-up. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 304 968)

In 1982, Ursinus College instituted a new Freshman Advising Program (FAP), to include a
greatly expanded role for the advisor, with greater emphasis on student-centered
developmental advising. Information on a great number of advising aspects in included Data
are presented in two tables.

Champagne, D. E., Petitpas, A. (1989). Planning developmental interventions for adult students. NASPA Journal, 26, 265-271.

Student affairs intervention has normally been targeted for the specific developmental tasks
of the traditional student. This article suggests that student affairs professionals need to give
greater consideration to the developmental needs of adult learners. In particular, it proposes
a framework for planning developmental interventions for them. To achieve the goal of
developmental intervention for adult students, student affairs professionals should
incorporate the following functional roles in the service: 1) a specialized service that
provides student affairs departments with information about the developmental needs of
adult students, 2) a course that educates adult students about the life events they are likely
to encounter, 3) an advocacy service for adult students, 4) a clearinghouse that provides
information on where to find services, 5) program planning, 6) networking and mentoring
services, and 7) counseling.

Chickering, A. W. (1969). Education and identity. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

This volume outlines Chickering's student developmental theory. He suggests that students
accomplish seven developmental tasks or vectors as they pass through the college
experience. These include: 1) achieving competence, 2) managing emotions, 3) becoming
autonomous, 4) establishing identity, 5) freeing interpersonal relationships, 6) devel- oping
purpose, and 7) developing integrity. Working through these seven developmental tasks is
crucial to the successful college student's passage into mature adulthood.

Creamer, D. G. (1980). Student development in higher education: Theories, practices and future directions. Cincinnati, OH: American College Personnel Association.

This book takes its form from solicited papers of notable experts in the field of student
development. Each paper forms a chapter devoted to an issue of wide-spread concern in
student development as it is practiced on college campuses and taught in the classrooms of
graduate preparation programs. The chapters are arranged so that the reader may begin with
theoretical considerations, proceed through practical problems in implementation and in
graduate preparation, and conclude with general considerations for the profession at large.
The book is arranged into four major parts: 1) theories, concepts and ethics, 2) environmental
considerations, 3) practices and future directions, and 4) barriers.

Crookston, B. B. (1972). A developmental view of academic advising as teaching. Journal of College Student Personnel, 13, 12-17.

The difference between developmental and prescriptive advising is described in this article.
Developmental advising is seen as the nature and quality of the relationship between adviser
and advisee. Advising is viewed as a teaching function where responsibilities are negotiated
between student and adviser. In the developmental relationship, both parties engage in a
series of developmental tasks, both learn, and together they work out an agreement on who
will take initiative and responsibility and who will supply knowledge and skills.
Developmental counseling also differs from prescriptive counseling in its view of abilities,
motivation, rewards, maturity, control, learning output, and evaluation.

Culbertson, S. (1985). Career guidance for the gifted. GCT, 38, 16-17.

Individual counseling techniques such as the college major card sort or group methods such
as modeling by gifted guests are among the career guidance strategies for gifted students that
stress developmental self-exploration and the need for flexibility.

Cunningham, J. V., & Tidwell, R. (1990). Cognitive-developmental counseling: Preparing
low-income students for college. School Counselor, 37, 225-32.

Describes cognitive-developmental counseling model designed to promote high school
seniors' social readiness for college through process of "psychological education." Notes that
program is specifically designed to encourage and support psychological growth of
prospective college students from low socioeconomic status backgrounds.

D'Andrea, M. (1992). When and why do counselors use personal and career counseling: An
integrative model. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 352 590)

This article outlines three different counseling approaches which counselors typically use to
promote clients' career development. These include the trait-factor, client-centered, and the
developmental approaches to career counseling. The trait-factor approach is described as
having the overall goal to help clients accurately assess their own skills and interests in order
that they might choose a compatible occupation or career. The client-centered approach is
described as emphasizing the importance of dealing with clients' personal problems and
concerns as they are viewed as the major obstacles to making meaningful and satisfying
career choices. The developmental approach is described as one in which counselors usually
provide both career guidance and personal counseling services in their work with clients
depending on their developmental needs. It is noted that each model places a different level
of emphasis on the amount of time and energy practitioners are encouraged to provide for
career guidance versus personal counseling services with clients. The paper discusses
Hawaii's Jobs Opportunities and Basic Skills (JOBS) Program, which integrated aspects of
all three of these model's in such a way as to effectively promote the personal and career
development of poor women living in Hawaii. The components of the program and the
women it served are described.

D'Andrea, M., & Daniels, J. (1992). Measuring ego development for counseling practice:
Implementing developmental eclecticism. Journal of Humanistic Education and
Development, 31, 12-21.

Discusses developmental-eclectic model of counseling that integrates Loevinger's theory of
ego development and methods to measure ego development in counseling practice. Outlines
key premises associated with process of psychological development and developmental
assessment; provides overview of some fundamental aspects of Loevinger's theory of ego
development and instruments used to measure it; and presents practical considerations for
clinical practice.

Edwards, J. (1993). Student Service Quality Assurance: A model that works. Community Services Catalyst, 23, 9-12.
Describes elements of the Student Service Quality Assurance model used at Butler County

Community College to assure access to education, access to information via the library and
various technological means, employee development, and student development through
adjunct advising, career planning, student seminars, developmental studies, and peer tutoring.

Ender, S. C., Winston, R. B., & Miller, T. K. (1982). Academic advising as student development. In R.B. Winston, S.C. Ender, and T.K. Miller (Eds.) Developmental approaches to academic advising. New directions for student services, No. 17. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

If the idea of educating the whole person, not only his or her intellect, is to be realized in
American higher education, principles of student development must be formally integrated
into the institution's mission, goals, and program thrusts. Academic advising is viewed as
one existing vehicle that can readily be refitted for this purpose. In order for colleges to have
a beneficial impact on the intellectual and personality development of students, academic and
student affairs divisions must work collaboratively. Academic advising should be the
touchstone for the integrated efforts.

Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity, youth, and crisis. New York: Norton and Company.

This book is a compilation of revisions of major essays of the last two decades,
supplemented by excerpts from papers written, by the author, about the same time. The
major sections of the book are as follows, 1) foundation in observation, 2) the life cycle:
epigenesis of identity, 3) identity confusion in life history and case history, 4) theoretical
interlude, 5) toward contemporary issues: youth, 6) womanhood and the inner space, and 7)
race and wider identity.

Erwin, T. D., & Love, W. B. (1989). Selected environmental factors in student development. NASPA Journal, 26, 256-264.

This study focused on one instrument that purports to measure selected aspects of student
development, and related performance on this instrument to several factors in the college
environment: residential living arrangements, educational goals, types of financial aid, and
social dating habits. Based on this sample of students, the study indicates that different
environmental factors are associated with student development. These factors and other
results are discussed.

Evans, N. J., et al. (1982). Developmental programming: A collaborative effort of residence life and counseling center staff. Journal of College Student Personnel, 23, 48-53.

Presents a collaborative model initiated by the staff of a counseling center and residence life
office to provide increased developmental programming to students. Evaluation showed
students benefitted from workshops held in residence halls and staff members were able to
provide increased services in a cost-effective manner.

Fielstein, L. L. (1987). Student preferences for personal contact in a student-faculty advising
relationship. NACADA Journal, 7, 34-40.

A study to arrive at a clearer understanding of the type of relationship students want when
interacting with a faculty adviser is described. In response to a questionnaire regarding
whether they believed their advisor was personally interested in them, 63 percent of the
students in this study responded that their advisors had a personal interest, and 37 percent
responded negatively. Of the 37 percent who reported that their advisor was not personally
interested, 73 percent said that this was not what they wanted from an advisor.

Fielstein, L. L. (1989). Student priorities for academic advising: Do they want a personal
relationship? NACADA Journal, 9, 33-38.

A study found students prefer prescriptive to developmental advising, but like a combination
of the two, with limits to the degree of personal involvement desired. Advisors attracted to
the developmental mode are cautioned to consider carefully how much personal counseling
to provide. Research on student characteristics and preferences is recommended.

Fielstein, L. L., et al. (1992). Differences in traditional and nontraditional students' preferences for advising services and perceptions of services received. NACADA Journal, 12, 5-12.

A survey of 103 undergraduate and graduate students found both traditional and
nontraditional students rated prescriptive advising as more important and more satisfactory
than developmental advising, but both groups also found the advising they received (of either
kind) less satisfactory than desired. The questionnaire used is appended.

Fox, R. N. (1985, March). Application of a conceptual model of college withdrawal todisadvantaged students. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 257 339)

Retention and attrition after the freshman year among disadvantaged students at a senior
college of the City University of New York were studied. A conceptual model of Tinto
(1975) was applied to a group of students participating in the Search for Education,
Elevation, and Knowledge (SEEK) program, which provided remedial and/or developmental
instruction in reading, writing, and/or mathematics, as well as supplementary stipends,
academic and personal counseling, and tutoring. The sample was approximately 49 percent
Black, 38 percent Hispanic, and 13 percent other (White, Asian, Caribbean, and Latin
American). Attention was directed to student characteristics and family background,
educational background, student goals, academic and social integration, and
persistence/withdrawal. The results indicate that Tinto's model was sensitive to the
dimensions of student-institutional fit operating in the situation, while showing that academic
integration was the most salient aspect of development for this group of students. In
particular, the receipt of unofficial withdrawal grades in individual classes, which reflects
psychological disengagement in addition to academic difficulty, showed an ability to identify
students for whom attrition is an immediate possibility.

Frost, S. H. (1993). Developmental advising: Practices and attitudes of faculty advisors. NACADA Journal, 13, 15-20.

A survey of 48 faculty advisors at 2 colleges investigated specific advising attitudes and
practices that students characterized as developmental in a previous study. Results suggest
advisors use the relationship to involve students in their individual college experiences, to
explore factors contributing to success, and to show interest in student academic and
extracurricular activities.

Frost, S. (1989). Academic advising and cognitive development: Is there a link? (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 317 113)

This paper explores the relationship of developmental advising and frequency of faculty-student contact to college students' cognitive growth. The students involved freshmen at two
women's colleges. On group participated in a two quarter seminar which included academic
advising. With the other group, advising groups met occasionally, and individual
conferences were held. The Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal was completed as
a pre-test as well as a post-test, along with the Academic Advising Inventory as a post-test
in the spring. Results indicated that quite high levels of developmental advising were
revealed at both colleges. No significant results were detected between frequency of contacts and developmental advising at either institution. The paper concludes with recommendations for planning advising programs, future research topics and references.

Frost, S. H. (1989). Academic responsibility: Can it be taught? NACADA Journal, 9, 17-24.

A freshman seminar offered at a women's college includes activities designed to enhance
individual academic responsibility by assessing academic goals and evaluating progress
toward them. Faculty advisor evaluation and student evaluation of the course indicate its
usefulness. The exercises can be used in any developmental academic advisor-advisee
relationship.

Frost, S. H. (1990). A comparison of developmental advising at two small colleges. National Academic Advising Association Journal, 10, 9-13.

At two women's liberal arts colleges, freshman (n=127, n=140) perceptions of academic
advising style were measured. Although students reported developmental advising at both
institutions, the mean score at one college was significantly more developmental than at the
other. Frequency of contact and an academic planning component were significant
differences.

Frost, S. H. (1990, October). Educational improvement through academic advising: Advisor
attitudes and practices that make a difference. Paper presented at the Annual Conference of
the Southern Association for Institutional Research, Ft. Lauderdale, FL. (ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED 327 076)

The study examined the advising attitudes and practices of faculty members identified as
developmental advisors at two women's liberal arts colleges. Developmental advising, as
distinguished from prescriptive advising, was defined as a relationship based on shared
responsibility in which students participate in the academic planning process. Advisors were
trained and served in extended freshman orientation and advising programs. Students then
completed the Academic Advising Inventory, which identified those advisors using a
developmental approach, and 38 of those advisors completed the specially developed
Academic Advisor Survey. Activities identified in the frequency distribution of responses
suggest that developmental advisors use the academic advising relationship to: (1) involve
students in their individual college experiences, including advising; (2) explore with students
those factors contributing to student success; and (3) display interest in students' academic
and extracurricular progress. Developmental advisors cluster their activities around
individual concerns such as out-of-class activities, classroom experiences, and personal
values. Tables detail the frequency distribution and factor loadings of survey responses.
Contains 27 references.

Frost, S. H. (1990). Academic advising for college and beyond. Pomona, NJ: National Academic Advising Association. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 329 182)

A research project presented at a workshop on academic advising on college campuses is
briefly described, and the attitudes and practices of academic advisors from two campuses,
obtained through an academic advisor survey, are presented. The project investigated the
relationship between developmental academic advising and the cognitive growth of college
freshmen. Unusually high levels of developmental advising found at two private liberal arts
women's colleges prompted the development of the academic advisor survey; the survey's
results are meant to help in the creation of a training component to advisors from other
campuses. The survey sought advisor attitudes and practices in 12 areas of academic
advising. Through factor analysis, items on the survey were broken down into three subscales and are described as: (1) areas of academic concern; (2) areas of personal concern; and (3) maintenance concerns. Items listed under each subscale are arranged in order of importance as viewed by the advisors surveyed. Contains 20 references.

Frost, S. H. (1991). Academic advising for student success: A system of shared responsibility (ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report No. 3, 1991). Washington, DC: Association for the Study of Higher Education; ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher Education; George Washington University, School of Education and Human Development. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 339 272)

This monograph examines student advising in the higher education setting by focusing on
shared responsibility strategies that enhance student motivation and persistence in a diverse
student population. Developmental advising is described in the first section. In
developmental advising, the relationship between advisor and student is vital. The advisor's
role in this model is to help the student look at long-term as well as immediate goals. This
quality in the advisor-student relationship serves to increase the student's involvement and
persistence in college and to prepare the student for future decision-making situations. The
strategies for achieving this type of relationship are explored in detail in the third section,
including ways to help students focus on and assist in clarifying their needs and aims.

Frost, S. H. (1991). Fostering the critical thinking of college women through academic advising and faculty contact. Journal of College Student Development, 32, 359-66.

Studied relationship of developmental academic advising and frequency of faculty-student
contact for advising purposes to the critical-thinking ability of freshman women (n=267).
Found significant variance in critical-thinking scores resulting from developmental advising.

Furr, S. R., & Gannaway, L. (1982). Easing the sophomore slump: A student development approach. Journal of College Student Personnel, 23, 340-341.

In addressing support and challenge variables from a developmental context, participants
were first provided with structure, a support variable, by being given an overview of the
workshop and a statement of goals. The goals were to a) define sophomore slump, b)
examine the various areas of one's life that contribute to sophomore slump, c) explore
possible action plans for making the year more positive, d) identify one life area in which
each person might make a constructive change, and e) decide on one course of action to
implement that change. The second phase established personalism as a support element, and
the third phase included experiential learning. Students reported that the workshop helped
increase their knowledge of sophomore slump and provided them with a problem solving
strategy.

Garnett, D.T. (1988). Developmental advising: How? Why? Proceedings of the NACADA Regional VII Conference on Academic Advising. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 298 825)

This report of a conference on developmental advising contains 18 papers. Papers include
such topics as "An introduction to the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator," "Integrating the Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator into a self-assessment and career exploration course," and "Advising
black scholarship students: A developmental model." The keynote address "Advising adults
in transition: Implications for developmental advising" is included.

Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

The author describes the difference between men and women in identity and moral
development. The book records different modes of thinking about relationships between
males and females and points out the problem of women fitting into existing models of
human growth. Three studies are cited to point out the way people talk about their lives and
the language they use to reveal the world as they see it and in which they act. Identity and
moral development are explored in early adulthood; an abortion decision study and a rights
and responsibilities study complete the research underlying these assumptions. The author
attempts to generate new theory which can yield a more encompassing view of the lives of
both sexes.

Gladstein, G. A., & Apfel, F. S. (1987). A theoretically based adult career counseling center. Career Development Quarterly, 36, 178-85.

Discusses theory underlying a developmental life-span adult career counseling center,
summarizes a case which illustrates the developmental life-span model, and presents findings
from an on-going formative evaluation study conducted at the University of Rochester Adult
Counseling Center.

Gordon, V. N. (1981). The undecided student: A developmental perspective. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 59, 433-439.

Three major developmental theories are described. How the major tenets in these theories
can be applied to undecided college students is presented. When advisers apply theoretical
frameworks to advising undecided students, these students are perceived as normal, maturing individuals. Practical approaches to advising and teaching are given based on the theories of Super, Tiedeman and Perry.

Gordon, V. N. (1984). The undecided college student: An academic and career advising challenge. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas.

This book describes how academic advisers, counselors, faculty, and college administrators
can help undecided college students set and implement educational and career goals. The
origins of indecision, types of undecided students, and model programs for counseling and
advising them are discussed. A developmental perspective is included.

Gordon, V. N. and Carberry, J. D. (1984). The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator: A resource for developmental advising. NACADA Journal, 4, 75-81.

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), a practical tool for helping students understand
some of the dynamics of how they communicate and approach the decision making process,
is described. This instrument can be a valuable source of information for students and
advisers. The article explores the need for such a tool, gives a brief overview of the
instrument, and discusses specific outcomes and benefits for students and advisors.

Gordon, V. N. (1988). Developmental advising. In W.R. Habley (Ed.) The status and future of academic advising: Problems and promise. Iowa City: ACT National Center for the Advancement of Educational Practices.

In this paper, developmental advising is defined and the theoretical underpinnings are described. Summary of developmental theory is outlined and the use of theory in practical situations is provided. Developmental advising goals, strategies and techniques are detailed for individual as well as programmatic advising.

Gordon, V. N. (1996). The undecided college student: An academic and career advising
challenge. Second Edition. Charles C. Thomas, Publisher,Springfield, IL

This book presents techniques for helping undecided college students set and implement
educational and career goals, focusing on a developmental advising approach and career
development concepts. Chapter 1 addresses the origins of indecision, the characteristics of
undecided students, and program interventions. Chapter 2 focuses on administrative models
and scope of services, while chapter 3 discusses the types of undecided students, such as
entering first-year students, major-changers, undecided upperclass students, and special
categories of undecided students. Chapter 4 explains the developmental advising approach
for undecided students, while chapter 5 outlines the methods and techniques of this model.
Chapter 6 highlights model programs for undecided students. Several sample student
surveys are included.

Grites, T. J. (1977). Student development through academic advising: A 4 X 4 model. NASPA Journal, 14, 33-37.

A successful student development program must be both operational in practice and
developmental in concept. This model attempts to provide both components. The 4 X 4
model utilizes an operational framework already within all institutions of higher education,
namely the academic structure. The developmental aspect of the model begins with the
student's initial contact and proceeds beyond his or her termination with the institution. The
model is adaptable to a variety of institutional settings and can be evaluated by objective and
qualitative methods.

Grites, T. J. (1983). A skills approach to career development. NACADA Journal, 3, 13-16.

A counseling approach encourages students' development of job-applicable,
career-transferable skills to meet the changing demands of specialization, automation,
mobility, urban growth, and industrial trends in the job market. These include writing;
speaking; research; and analytical, organizational, leadership, interpersonal, and quantitative
skills.

Haag-Mutter, P. (1985). Learning theories, career development theories, and their applications at two-year colleges. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 286 142)

Trait-factor theory, developmental/self-concept theory, personality theory, and behavioral
theory are some of the major theories of career development. The first three (trait-factor,
developmental/self-concept, and personality) have ties to the gestalt school because of the
emphasis on the individual's relationship to the environment. Anne Roe's personality theory
of career development integrates the concept of acting in response to and interacting with the
environment. Goodstein's and Krumboltz and Thoresen's behavioral theories embody
behavioral concepts portraying the client as a reactor, in a need/anxiety state or problem
identification made because of early conditioning. The implications for career educators in
two-year colleges involve these issues: (1) the need to serve full-time and part-time students
of all ages; (2) the need to provide career development to students in the maturity spectrum
from early dualism to commitment on the Perry Scheme; and (3) the need to fund student
services in a time of retrenchment. A simple delivery system of career planning services is
needed. Holland's Self-Directed Search seems suitable for these students. The outcomes of
this instrument can be discussed at face value or used as a springboard for career
decision-making. All two-year college educators helping students with career
decision-making and planning should be aware of the theoretical bases of modern career
development and be prepared to aid students in their development.

Habley, W. R. (Ed.)., et al. (1988). The status and future of academic advising: Problems and promise. Iowa City, Iowa:
American College Testing Program, National Center for the Advancement of Educational
Practices. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 346 903)

The status and future of academic advising is examined in this American College Testing
Program (ACT) monograph, providing an in-depth look at the topics consistently viewed as
critical to the success of advising programs. In chapter 1, Wesley R. Habley introduces the
monograph by examining the trends in advising over the past 15 years, focusing on current
problems and areas with potential for change. In chapter 2, "The Third ACT National Survey of Academic Advising," Habley and David S. Crockett analyze data drawn from a national sample (n=447) of two- and four-year public and private institutions, while in chapter 3, "What Students Think about Academic Advising," Julie Noble uses findings from the same ACT survey to compare student responses at two-year, four-year public, and four-year private institutions. Chapters 4 through 8 focus on practical approaches to and components of academic advising services. The chapters present "Developmental Advising," by Virginia N. Gordon; "The Organization of Advising Services," by Habley; "Advising Delivery Systems," by Margaret C. King; "Advisor Training," by Michael Keller; and "Evaluating and Rewarding Advisors," by Crockett. In chapter 9, "Concerning Changes in Advising," Sara C. Looney looks at the role of advisors as change agents. "Exemplary Academic Advising Programs" are explored by Diana Saluri and Habley in chapter 10, which includes brief synopses of programs of 71 institutions. Finally, chapter 11 provides a 105-item bibliography compiled and selectively annotated by Habley and Lois Renter.

Hargrave, O. T. (Ed.). (1989, May). Academic advising: Transition and continuity. Proceedings of the 5th National Academic Advising Association Annual Region VII Conference, Dallas, TX. Pomona, NJ: National Academic Advising Association. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 309 723)

The paper by M. Brooks and C. Murphy, "Advising, Writing Centers, and Academic
Services: Applications and Extensions of Student Developmental Theories" is among those
from the conference proceedings of the National Academic Advising Association.

Hartleb, D. (1986). The University College at age twenty-five. Cincinnati, OH: University of
Cincinnati, University College. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 269 046)

In recognition of the 25th anniversary of University College (UC), the first public two-year
college in Ohio, this report presents an overview of the history and contributions of the
college. Included among the numerous topics are: a description of its developmental
education programs, and support services offered by the Center for Developmental
Education. Section 6 focuses on UC's considerable investment in developmental education,
underscoring the importance of having developmental education integrated with other
academic departments.

Hartman, B. W., et al. (1985). A path-analytic model of career indecision. Vocational Guidance Quarterly, 33, 231-40.

Tested a path model reflecting developmental and chronic types of career indecision on
counseling students (N=164) and high school students (N=155). Data from both samples
supported the model, confirming the role of trait anxiety in career indecision.

Hashway, R. M. (1989). Developmental learning center designs. Research & Teaching in
Developmental Education, 5, 25-38.

Describes several models for the design, evaluation, and delivery of developmental
programs, including the Expanded Individualized Prescriptive Instruction system (which
includes placement, counseling, and intervention phases), and the Developmental Pyramid
Model (which includes diagnosis, prescription, evaluation, and advising/tutoring).

Hatfield, T., & Hatfield, S. R. (1992). As if your life depended on it: Promoting cognitive
development to promote wellness. Journal of Counseling and Development, 71, 164-67.

Discusses key elements of the cognitive-developmental perspective and the need to integrate
it as an important component of the wellness model. Notes that each speaks to the personal
empowerment of every person to live a rewarding and responsible life and that each also
emphasizes the ongoing promotion of growth rather than secondary prevention or
remediation.

Havighurst, R. J. (1972). Developmental tasks and education. New York: David McCay.

This book discusses the developmental tasks concept. This concept occupies middle ground
between the two opposing theories of education: The theory of freedom-that the child will
develop best if left as free as possible, and the theory of constraint-that the child must learn
to become a worthy, responsible adult through restraints imposed by society. A
developmental task is midway between an individual need and a societal demand. It assumes
an active learner interacting with an active social environment. The developmental tasks
discussed include such areas as infancy, adolescence, early adulthood, and later maturity.

Heppner, M. J. & Hendricks, F. (1995). A process and outcome study examining career
indecision and indecisiveness. Journal of Counseling & Development, 73, 426-37.

Used both process and outcome measures to investigate the counseling process with an
undecided college student and an indecisive one. Results supported previous speculation
about the differential utility of interventions for undecided and indecisive clients and suggest
that the counselor-client relationship may be important to clients in career counseling.

Higbee, J. L. (1996). "Who Belongs?" versus "Who Gets to Stay?". Research & Teaching in Developmental Education, 12, 81-86.

Discusses the experiences of a student at a selective admissions university with a moderately
high IQ (119) but who also had a learning disability that impeded his academic success.
Uses the case study to examine which students really belong at the university and which are
allowed to stay there.

Higginson, L.C., et al. (1980). Academic advising as a develop- mental process. Proceedings of the 4th National NACADA Conference o Academic Advising, Asheville, NC. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 222 104)

In this document, proceedings of the 1980 National Conference on Academic Advising are
presented. The more than 50 papers are organized as general sessions, pre-conference
workshops, and paper sessions. For the paper sessions, summaries are presented which are
written by either the presenter or the publication editors. The papers cover such topics as
"How students develop their notions of knowledge and advice," by W.G Perry, "Designing
developmental advising environments," by L.L. Knefelkamp, and "Advising systems: A
'developmental' approach to advising high risk students and facilitating total development
of all students," by W.D. Bigham, T. Blong, and L. Higginboham.

Hood, A. B., Riahinejad, A. R., White, D. B. (1986). Changes in ego identity during the college years. Journal of College Student Personnel, 27, 107-113.

The principal purpose of this study was to examine the development of undergraduates along
Chickering's vector of identity during their four years on a university campus. Students
studied over a four year period showed that growth on ego identity occurred not as freshmen
but primarily during the upperclass years.

Iaccino, J. F. (1991). Assessment and comparison of advising for freshmen and upperclassmen. Journal of the Freshman Year Experience, 3, 75-90.

A study at Illinois Benedictine College compared the advising of freshmen with that of
upperclassmen. Upperclassmen rated advisers highly on academic dimensions such as
knowledge of major courses and graduation requirements. Freshmen saw advisers as
concerned about their college adjustment, helpful with referrals, and interested in their
general welfare.

Ibrahim, F. A., & Herr, E. L. (1987). Battered women: A developmental life-career counseling perspective. Journal of Counseling & Development, 65, 244-48.

Describes a career counseling strategy based on specific psychosocial characteristics of
battered women. Describes the approach as developmental, focusing on the client's
self-concept. Proposes a group format to assist the clients in developing appropriate life and
career-decision making skills.

Isakson, R. L., & Call, J. M. (1991). The freshman student and academic success: A counseling center's approach. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American College Personnel Association, Atlanta, GA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 334 518)

This paper describes three outreach programs implemented by the Counseling and
Development Center (CDC) at Utah's Brigham Young University (BYU) to better serve the
academic needs of freshmen. The first program is a cooperative program with the BYU
Housing Department aimed at facilitating adjustment to college and personal development
of students living in on-campus housing. A course bearing one hour of academic credit is
offered through the Heritage Developmental Community (HDC) project which provides
students with experiential learning activities. The HDC students tended to receive higher
semester grade point averages when compared to the general freshman population and a
sample of freshman females who did not participate in HDC. The second outreach program
was a pilot program for an academic peer assistance program. The program consisted of
recruiting and training students to be peer assistants, and offering their services to students
placed on academic warning. The program will become a valuable asset for students with
academic concerns as the program is refined and the needs of the students are better
identified. The third outreach program was a pilot program designed to be administered to
all new transfer and freshman football players. The program consisted of academic and
vocational testing and a follow-up interview. The major problem with the program was the
difficulty in getting students who needed additional testing because of possible learning
problems to return for follow-up counseling.

Ivey, A. E., & Van Hesteren, F. (1990). Counseling and development: "No one can do it all, but it all needs to be done." Journal of Counseling and Development, 68, 534-36.

Claims the educational-developmental model allows a profession to work with the many
contributions of the medical and psychological models but still to remain distinct.
Recommends professional identity of counseling and development be defined more clearly
to counselors and others.

Jepsen, D. A. (1992). A developmental career counseling approach for the case of Rachel. Career Development Quarterly, 41, 36-38.

Responds to earlier article which presented case of Rachel, 28-year-old art education major
who sought help at the university counseling center because she had a lack of interest in
completing her major course work and thought that she might be pursuing the wrong
profession. Presents a developmental career counseling approach to working with this client.

Jordan-Cox, C. A. (1987). Psychosocial development of students in traditionally black institutions. Journal of College Student Personnel, 28, 504-511.

The author reports developmental differences among students at traditionally black
institutions on the Student Developmental Task Inventory (SDTI-2). The SDTI-2 has three
tasks: 1) developing autonomy, 2) developing purpose, and 3) developing mature
interpersonal relationships. The article also discusses the effects of sex, academic
classification, and collegiate environment.

June, L. N., & Gunnings, T. S., (Eds.). (1985). The black male: Critical counseling, developmental, and therapeutic issues. Part I. Journal of Non White Concerns in Personnel and Guidance, 13, 43-87.

This special issue, the first of three issues on counseling the Black male, contains four
articles by Charles Thomas, John Warfield and Robert Marion, Asa Hilliard III, and Sharon
Hobbs. Reviews counseling issues involving Black males, including the need for relevant
counseling theories, ethnicity and identity, adolescent and adult development, interpersonal
relationships, counselor client relationships, cultural influences, and issues in psychotherapy
with urban Black male adolescents.

Katchadourian, H.A. and Boli, J. (1985). Careerism and intellectualism among college students. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

This book addresses the concepts of careerism and intellectualism among college students
by reporting on a study of students at Stanford University. It deals with the undergraduate
experience by tracing the paths of change and challenge of undergraduate students. Four
types of students are described: careerists, intellectuals, strivers, unconnected. Background
characteristics, choices of majors and careers, attitudes toward liberal education, social lives
and academic successes are described for each of the four types. Recommendations are
made for using this information to improve the academic and extracurricular lives of
students. Specific ways to assist students in each of the four typologies in order to enhance
their undergraduate experience are given.

Keller, K. E., et al. (1982). Career counseling from a cognitive perspective. Personnel and
Guidance Journal, 60, 367-71.

Suggests that the impact of career events is cognitively mediated. Proposes cognitive
treatments of career concerns that are derived from cognitive developmental theories and
cognitive/behavioral models of counseling and therapy. Additionally, the issues of cognitive
career assessment and research are discussed.

Kern, C. W. & Engels, D. W. (1996). Developmental academic advising: A paradigm shift in a college of business administration. Journal of College Student Development, 37, 95-96.

A survey that examined the advising process was given to sophomores, juniors, and seniors
requiring business administration courses at the University of North Texas. As a result,
additional advisors, staff development for current advisors, and emphasis on individual
student needs were recommended changes that support a developmental approach.

Kerr, B. A. (1986). The career development of creatively gifted adults. In: Issues in Adult Career Counseling. New Directions for Continuing Education, no. 32 (pp. 59-69). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Career development of creatively gifted adults consists of three tasks: (1) dealing with career
decision problems, (2) finding training and support, and (3) maintaining productivity.
Counselors can help clients face these tasks by emphasizing values in decision making,
keeping abreast of innovations, and identifying and treating productivity blocks.

Keys, R. C. (ed.). (July, 1990). Toward the future vitality of student development services: Traverse City--five years later. Summary Report of the 6th Annual Leadership Colloquium, Traverse City, Michigan. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 338 281)

As a result of the 1984 National Council on Student Development (NCSD) Leadership
Colloquium, a report was developed presenting a series of seven recommendations and
accompanying strategies for strengthening student development services. Entitled, "Traverse
City Statement: Toward the Future Vitality of Student Development Services," the report
served as the basis for the Sixth Annual NCSD Leadership Colloquium. At the 1989
colloquium, special work groups were formed to examine and revise each of the original
1984 recommendations. Following an introduction, chapter 1 of this three-part report
provides the opening address of the conference, "Student Development 2000 or Traverse City Revisited" by John E. Roueche. Chapter 2 examines six of the seven 1984 recommendations, including the following articles: (1) "Contributing to Quality Reaffirmation and Program Accountability," by Stephen J. Maier; (2) "Strengthening Partnerships with Community Constituencies," by Donald J. Slowinski; (3) "Strengthening Partnerships with Internal (Campus) Constituencies," by Donald J. Slowinski; (4) "Creatively Managing Resources: Doing More With Less?" by Joanna K. Michelich; (5) "Enrollment Management and Student Persistence," by Jo N. Beene; and (6) "Integrating Student Development into the Educational Experience," by Linda Dayton. Finally, Chapter 3 presents a summary of recommendations made by the work groups reviewing the 1984 statements. Appendix A provides a reprint of the 1984 Traverse City Statement, and appendix B presents results of the fall 1989 national survey of two-year college student services officers about their use of and commitment to the objectives identified in the statement.

King, M. C. (Ed.). (1993). Academic advising: Organizing and delivering services for student success. New Directions for Community Colleges. New Directions for Community Colleges, No. 82. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Offering new perspectives on academic advising in community colleges, this book defines
developmental academic advising, describes the organization and delivery of advising
services, and discusses key components of effective programs. The following 10 chapters are included: (1) "Developmental Academic Advising," by Thaddeus M. Raushi, defining
developmental academic advising as a process which views students in the context of their
whole life setting; (2) "Academic Advising, Retention, and Transfer," by Margaret C. King,
highlighting the role of advising in student integration into college life; (3) "The
Organization and Effectiveness of Academic Advising in Community Colleges," by Wesley
R. Habley, describing findings of a national survey of advising program characteristics; (4)
"Advising Models and Delivery Systems," by Margaret C. King, reviewing seven
organizational models and five delivery systems; (5) "Adviser Training in the Community
College," by Portia K. Weston, arguing that training activities improve student success and
provide team-building staff development; (6) "Evaluation, Recognition, and Reward of
Academic Advising," by Buddy Ramos; (7) "Advising the Two-Year Student: Considerations and Strategies," by Judith L. Sanford-Harris; (8) "Advising Multicultural Populations for Achievement and Success," by Thomas Brown and Mario Rivas, discussing challenges and strategies for advising students of different backgrounds; (9) "Intrusive Academic Advising," by Martha T. Garing, suggesting intervention strategies at specified times from admission to graduation; and (10) "Sources and Additional Information: Academic Advising in the Community College," by Karin Petersen Hsiao.

Knefelkamp, L. L., & Slepitza, R. (1976). A cognitive-developmental model of career development:
An adaptation of the Perry scheme. The Counseling Psychologist, 6, 53-58.

The model and data presented in this article represent initial efforts at confronting the task
of developing an accurate, useful career decision-making model. The following areas of
qualitative change are discussed: 1) locus of control, 2) analysis, 3) synthesis, 4) semantic
structure, 5) self-processing, 6) openness to alternative perspectives, 7) ability to assume
responsibility, 8) ability to take on new roles, and 9) ability to take risks with self.

Knefelkamp, L, Widick, C., & Parker, C.A. (Eds). (1978). Applying new developmental findings.
New Directions for Student Services, no. 4. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Seven models of college student development are discussed in this volume: those of Erikson,
Chickering, Perry, Kohlbery, Loevinger, Douglas Heath, and Roy Heath. The models fall
into four categories: psychosocial theories, cognitive development theories, maturity models,
and typology models. The volume concludes with a discussion of the challenges brought by
new students, a listing of 13 annotated references, and a subject index.

Kramer, G. L., Taylor, L., Chynoweth, B., & Jensen, J. (1987). Developmental academic advising:
A taxonomy of services. NASPA Journal, 24, 23-31.

This article reviews research on key student academic needs and presents them in a
taxonomic model on how to focus on student development in academic advising. It also
addresses the different needs of each academic class and discusses potential delays to student
progress through ineffective advising. Coordination of institutional resources to promote
student development is discussed.

Kramer, G. L., & White, M. T. (1982). Developing a faculty mentoring program: An experiment.
NACADA Journal, 2, 47-58.

In this study, 43 freshmen who volunteered to participate in a freshman seminar program
were compared with 60 randomly selected freshmen. Both groups completed the Freshman
Student Questionnaire as a pre- and post-test, and the seminar participants and the seven
seminar faculty members completed a seminar evaluation post-test. The freshman seminar
group participated in 13 weekly sessions geared toward forming student-faculty relationships,
and defining academic goals. Analysis of covariance on post-test scores revealed that the
treatment group showed significantly greater improvement in academic and career success
abilities than did the comparison group. The faculty and student evaluations were positive,
showing that students involved in this seminar were able to establish good relationships with
their faculty advisors, to examine their career goals in relation to their academic goals, and
to take advantage of resources provided by the school.

Kramer, H. C. (1983). Advising: Implications for faculty development.NACADA Journal, 3, 25- 31.

A healthy advising program serves as a useful vehicle for faculty development. An
institution may use the program to develop faculty skills useful in other contexts than the
individual student's welfare. Advising programs should endeavor to improve students,
faculty, and the institution.

Laff, N. S., Schein, H. and Allen, D. (1987). Teaching, advising, and student development: Finding the common ground. NACADA Journal, 7, 9-15.

Root concepts and critical thinking skills are offered as the solution to the disparate interests
and concerns of academic affairs and student affairs professionals. A variety of advising
strategies is provided to assist advisees in learning how to make well informed decisions
about their future. The impact of incorporating these concepts into advice giving is twofold.
First, advice givers will have a concrete method for helping students solve problems.
Second, advice givers will, be example, teach students a process for solving their own
problems.

Langley, H. M. (1984, October). Strategies for implementing advising programs. Paper presented at the 8th National NACADA Conference, Philadelphia, PA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 250 023)

Two approaches to developmental advising programs are described in this report, along with
strategies for successfully implementing developmental advising systems through credit
classroom and non-credit seminar experiences. Examined are questions of administrative
and faculty support, cooperation between academic and student affairs, academic committees and group action, and drafting program proposals. Appendices contain a definition of and rationale for developmental academic advising and an outline of the advising roles to be fulfilled.

Larkin, L. (1987). Identity and fear of success. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 34, 38-45.

The relationship between ego identity and fear of success was investigated in this study.
Subjects were adult college students. Two measures of identity were used: The Rasmussen
Ego Identity Scale was administered to all 102 subjects, and the Marcia (1966) interview for
identity status was administered to 44 of the 102 subjects. All subjects also completed the
Cohen People Knowing Questionnaire, used to measure fear of success, and an occupational questionnaire designed to gather information concerning work-related behaviors and attitudes. A significant correlation was observed between EIS and PKQ scores. Those classified as identity achieved and foreclosed were found to have lower PKQ scores than those classified as moratorium and diffusion. Significant correlations for PKQ and identity scores with the work-related items were also observed. Implications for counselors are discussed.

Lopez, F. G. (1987). The impact of parental divorce on college student development. Journal of Counseling and Development, 65, 484-486.

Although many studies have been conducted on the influence of parental divorce on younger
children, fewer have dealt with the affects of divorce on late adolescents, and young adults.
The author explores the developmental consequences of parental divorce on college students. A critique of the literature in this area and its implications for counselors are provided.

Lopez, F. G., Campbell, V. L., & Watkins, C. E., Jr. (1988). Family structure, psychological separation, and college adjustment: A canonical analysis and cross-validation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 35, 402-409.

Family structure, psychological separation, and college adjustment represent
multidimensional constructs that are presumed to interact only during late adolescence. The
purpose of this study was to identify significant interrelations, first, between measures of
family structure and psychological separation, and second, between psychological separation
and college adjustment measures. The results are interpreted as supporting assumptions of
structural family theory and as suggesting that the psychological separation patterns of
college men and women are differentially affected by inappropriate family structure.

Manzi, P. A. (1987). Skills assessment in career counseling: A developmental approach. Career Development Quarterly, 36, 45-54.

Five skills assessment procedures are described as they apply to aiding career transitions
among high school students, college students, dislocated workers, and displaced
homemakers. The purpose of this article is to demonstrate the value of skills assessment in
career counseling. Although skills assessment is only one component of career counseling,
its importance is increased when it is used to promote the career growth of individuals facing
major life transitions.

Marso, J. L. (1991). Addressing the developmental issues of lesbian and gay college students. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 328 861)

This paper addresses the developmental stages and issues faced by lesbian and gay college
students between the ages of 18 and 25. Over and above the developmental stages faced by
all students, lesbian and gay students frequently struggle with their sexual identity and
development and the range of problems and emotions associated with coming to terms with
their homosexuality. This area of student development is a concern for those working with
college students since 10 percent of the population is gay, lesbian, or bisexual, and faculty
and college staff will certainly find themselves advising, counseling and working with
students who are struggling with these issues. Theories on the development of sexual identity
are reviewed and examined as they apply to the field of education. Six developmental tasks
faced by lesbian and gay students are listed and discussed: "Coming out"; developing a
positive self-concept; developing and maintaining primary relationships; dealing with
homophobia and harassment; dealing with discrimination; and dealing with rejection. A
review of the literature suggests two areas needing change: faculty and college staff working
with gay and lesbian students need to learn about and develop an understanding of the
lifestyles and struggles of these students, and efforts need to be made to assist non-gay
students, faculty and staff in dealing with homophobia. Suggestions for educating students,
staff and faculty about gay and lesbian issues and for reducing homophobia are included.

Manuele-Adkins, C. (1992). Career counseling is personal counseling. Career Development Quarterly, 40, 313-23.

Argues that career counselors need to pay more attention to the affective, psychological
issues confronting clients with career problems. Discusses impact of significant
psychological variables that influence career decision making, including developmental
stages and tasks, identity formation and status, self-concept, psychological needs, and
internal barriers.

McAuliffe, G. J. & Strand, R. F. (1994). Advising from a constructive developmental perspective. NACADA Journal, 14, 25-31.

Constructive developmental theory is offered as a useful framework from which to encourage greater college student ownership of the educational planning process and to inform the direction and content of advising. Methods of assessing and enhancing development are suggested, and two cases that depict advising from this perspective are presented.

McCauley, L. (1987). The university curriculum: A freshman year program for students who choose to explore academic and career options (Annual report, 1986-87). Kalamazoo: Western Michigan University. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 288 432)

A program to serve beginning and transfer students at Western Michigan University who are
undecided about their curriculum choice is described. The assessment, referral, and advising
services are designed to address students' developmental as well as academic needs. Program activities during 1986-1987 are identified for the following program objectives: to administer recruitment communications and participate in recruitment activities; to provide program and academic information to students and parents at orientation; to connect students with the program services through written and other types of communication; to provide assessment and referral services to students; to provide academic advising; to provide courses suited to developmental needs of students; to provide academic skill-building courses and academic support services; to coordinate with the Honors College in providing guidance and enrichment services for students who scored high on the American College Testing Program examinations; to provide career planning service; and to provide development and support services for advising staff and to evaluate staff effectiveness.

McWhirter, E. H. (1997). Empowerment, social activism, and counseling. Counseling &
Human Development, 29, 1-14.

Defines empowerment and discusses the counseling process in which the goal is
empowerment. Describes two underlying assumptions and five core components of
counseling for empowerment. Also describes social activism in the context of past and
present understanding of the counselor's role. Gives examples social activism relevant to the
counseling profession.

Meeting the developmental needs of the early college student. (1981). Fund for the Improvement of Postsecondary Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 227 182)

This report describes a faculty development project for an experimental program for the
younger than average college student. The project had three aims: 1) to develop practical
methods of determining a student's position with respect to cognitive, moral and ego
development and to track entering freshmen across the first two years of their college
experience, 2) to introduce faculty and administration, 3) to critique existing courses
and co-curricular activities specifically addressed to meet students' developmental needs.

Miller, T. K., & McCaffrey, S. S. (1982). Student development theory: Foundations for academic advising. In R.B. Winston, S.C. Ender, and T.K. Miller (Eds.)

Developmental approaches to academic advising. New Directions for Student Services, no. 17. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Student development theories, specifically psychosocial development and intellectual development, provide a framework for understanding students and for guiding the structure and interaction of the academic advising process. Effective advising programs can be founded on theories of human development, which can guide advisors as they seek to create environments conducive to students' educational and personal growth.

Mines, R. A., King, P. M., Hood, A. B., & Wood, P. K. (1990). Stages of intellectual development and associated critical thinking skills in college students. Journal of College Student Development, 31, 538-547.

In this study, a fine-grained approach was used to examine the relationship between
reflective judgement and standardized critical thinking tests. The authors focused on the
specific skills constituting these measures rather than the use of the more global overall
scores. This approach allowed the authors to determine whether component critical thinking
skills are present at some reflective judgement stages and not others, and how important
certain critical thinking skills are to the complex problem-solving abilities that are reflected
in the more advance stages of reflective judgement.

Miranda, S., & Rita, E. S. (1989). Developmental minicourses. Journal of College Student
Development, 30, 270-271.

This article discusses developmental minicourses which are cocurricular, short-term, not-for-credit courses offered to entering freshmen in conjunction with the college orientation course
for credit. Counselors count attendance at these workshops as a requisite to completion of
the main college orientation course. The developmental needs of individual students cannot
be met best by a single form of developmental minicourses. Students should probably move
from one form to another over time as they develop. Students can be helped to resolve
adjustment and developmental problems, and as they engage in self-discovery, they may
develop an awareness of both their shared characteristics and their uniqueness as individuals.

Mitchell, A. A. (1988). Developmental theory and career newsletters. Journal of Career
Development, 15, 110-20.

The author describes the design, distribution, and impact of class newsletters anchored in
theories of intellectual development and produced by the Counseling and Career
Development Center at Allegheny College (Pennsylvania). Developmental stages and
concerns of students in each class year are presented as a basis for the topics and approach
used in the newsletters.

Mitchell, A. M. (1985). Educational excellence for all students: assessing the adequacy of your counseling program. NASSP Bulletin, 69, 23-27.

Educational excellence must be measured in terms of all of a school's programs, and the
keystone of a comprehensive counseling program is a credible system for evaluation.
Guidance plans must address the developmental needs of all students.

Myrick, R. D. (1987). Developmental guidance and counseling: A practical approach. Minneapolis, MN: Educational Media Corporation. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 346 411)

This document provides a framework and reference for counselors, and identifies skills and
experiences needed by students as a part of attending school and becoming successful. The
first chapter discusses the emergence of developmental guidance and counseling. School
guidance and counseling are defined, and the formative years are discussed. Four approaches to guidance and counseling are presented. The second chapter presents a comprehensive approach to guidance and counseling. Basic assumptions and needs, the theory of developmental guidance, curriculum and goals and principles of developmental guidance, and the roles of school personnel in guidance are examined. The third chapter considers the teacher as student advisor. The Teachers as Advisors Program (TAP) is described, and the counselor's role in TAP is defined. Building support for TAP, counselor-teacher relationships, and school guidance committees are discussed. The fourth chapter identifies the counselor as a developmental guidance specialist. Counseling theories, the developmental counselor, a practical approach to the counselor's role, basic counselor interventions, managing interventions, and managing counselor priorities are discussed. The fifth chapter considers the counselor as facilitator. The facilitative model, and facilitative processes, responses, and activities are examined. The sixth through tenth chapters discuss counselor interventions. Individual counseling, small group counseling, large group guidance, peer facilitator projects, and consultation are examined. The 11th chapter addresses the counselor as a guidance coordinator and the 12th chapter focuses on the counselor and accountability.

Novels, A. N., & Ender, S. C. (1988). The impact of developmental advising for high-achieving minority students. NACADA Journal, 8, 23-26.

The impact of developmental advising activities with high-achieving black students at a
predominantly white institution was investigated. Results indicate that involvement in
developmental advising had a positive impact on participating students' cumulative grade
point average. The results suggested that advisors should be alert and sensitive to issues of
academic achievement for those minority students marticulated who have been high
achievers in high school. Experience suggests that they may be burdened by higher
education assimilation issues and problems similar to those of minority and majority students
who are admitted in an academic at-risk category.

Nunez-Wormack, E., et al. (1992). Preparing freshmen for college: A comprehensive prefreshman summer program model. Research & Teaching in Developmental Education, 8, 15-26.

Describes the five-week, tuition-free Prefreshman Summer Program developed by the College of Staten Island to reduce or eliminate the need for developmental courses during the academic year. The program includes intensive reading, writing, and mathematics instruction, supplemental tutoring, college orientation, counseling, and academic advising. Reports outcomes.

O'Brien, M. T. (1989, March). Developmental career counseling. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Association for Counseling and Development, Boston, MA. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 312 547)

This paper outlines a developmental self psychology for use by career counselors with career clients. It offers a definition of a psychological self, draws from the work of Mead, Vygotsky, and Kohut to develop an understanding of the processes involved in the development and internalization of a psychological self, and connects the work of career counselors in facilitating this environment to the clinical observations of Heinz Kohut for working with persons with deficits in the development of a psychological self. It is suggested that Kohut's theory is more comprehensive than Freud's. It is claimed that career counselors may actually see many more people with disorders of the self than is usually the case with psychoanalysts.
The model presented works on heuristic assumptions that the characteristic behaviors and communications of career clients represent healthy developmental tendencies, and that career clients may be seen not as manifesting psychopathology, but more importantly as manifesting and communicating a highly intelligent and accurate intuitive perception of their own developmental needs, which the counselor's theory must find a way to interpret. The paper concludes that much research remains to be completed.

Parker, C. A. (1978). Encouraging development in college students. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.

This volume attempts to describe the most relevant personality theories and integrates them into student development programs. The chapters are papers from a conference held at the University of Minnesota. Included are examples of integrating student development through the curriculum. Programs in the areas of student affairs, career planning and decision making are outlined. Many other uses of developmental theory are presented so that theories and applications of these theories are developed.

Paulsen, M. B. (1989). Developmental academic advising: Do handicapped advisors have an advantage? NACADA Journal, 9, 5-10.

The author discusses how his gradual loss of vision had unexpected favorable results in his advising activities. The purpose of this paper is to offer a descriptive and a possible explanation of these changes within the contexts of developmental academic advising. Based on these personal experiences and his further research, he offers academic advising practical suggestions for increased professional effectiveness.

Pedersen, J. S., & Smith, C. B. (1986). Diagnostic model for assessing the effect of developmental issues on career action. Journal of Employment Counseling, 23, 66-77.

Describes a diagnostic model for assessing the effect of developmental issues on career action that is designed to help career counselors diagnose problems that are interfering with clients' career development and to determine appropriate interventions.

Pelsma, D. M., & Borgers, S. B. (1986). Experience-based ethics: A developmental model of learning ethical reasoning. Journal of Counseling & Development, 64, 311-14.

A model is proposed to explain how the learning process of ethical reasoning occurs. It integrates the learning process (Kolb, 1976) and a developmental scheme of ethical reasoning (Van Hoose, 1980). Implications for ethics training in educational programs and ethical behavior in professional practice are discussed.

Perry, W. G. (1970). Forms of intellectual and ethical development in the college years. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

This book outlines the cognitive development theory of William Perry. The theory was derived from interviewing students at Harvard University over an extensive period. Students were encouraged to think and talk about topics of importance to them. From these protocols Perry derived his theory of how students change and grow during the college years. This volume outlines the nine positions of development in Perry's scheme. It also describes three alternatives to growth: temporizing, retreat and escape. Implications of the study for practical purposes are also given.

Peterson, L., & McDonough, E. (1985). Developmental advising of undeclared students using an integrated model of student growth. NACADA Journal, 5, 61-69.

Undeclared majors, like declared majors, are at various levels of maturity, and the development and implementation of advising strategies must incorporate these levels and the students' perspective. An integrated model of college student development applied to the undeclared major is presented. Particular attention should be paid to the classification of students as to their developmental level. This appears to have most relevance for devising specific advising strategies which will help the student maximize the college experience.

Petitpas, A., & Champagne, D. E. (1988). Developmental programming for intercollegiate athletes. Journal of College Student Development, 29, 454-460.

Numerous authors have outlined the academic and interpersonal needs of student athletes, but few have examined the problem from a developmental perspective. In this article, the authors propose a psychoeducational programming model for assisting student athletes that incorporates such an approach. In particular, the authors address a) developmental dynamics, b) a rationale for specific services for athletes, c) suggested psychoeducational programming, and d) implementation and evaluation considerations.

Petschauer, P. (1983). Exxon and higher education: Reflections on one student-to-student advising program. College Student Journal, 17, 145-150.

This article describes the implementation of Exxon's student-to-student advising program at Wautauga College. Advanced students are hired, initially for money and for credit, to teach beginning students basic college survival skills. Every advisee is given a preliminary study habit and attitude survey in conjunction with which he or she is then encouraged to take seriously 10 topics to be discussed in a more or less formal classroom setting. Time management, taking lecture notes, reading textbooks, taking exams, writing reports, making oral presentations, and improving interpersonal relations are also taught.

Pisani, A. M. & Stott, N. (1996, October). An investigation of part-time faculty commitment to student development. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for the Study of Higher Education, Memphis, TN. October 31 - November 3, 1996). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 402 841)

This study examined the factors influencing the commitment of part-time faculty to developmental advising. The study was based on a theoretical framework which suggests that developmental advising is a learning experience that involves interaction of students and faculty members. The data for the study were collected during a 1992 survey of 969 part-time faculty (504 responses) at a midwestern university, with variables characterized as descriptive or attitudinal. The study found that the greatest positive influence on
developmental advising was integration of part-time faculty into the department. It was concluded that increasing faculty involvement in developmental advising will enhance the quality of higher education. Variable definitions and scale rankings are defined in the appendix, and results are analyzed and then summarized in two tables, one a correlation matrix and the other listing the regression coefficients.

Platt, G. M. (1995). Learning from the past, or must history repeat itself? The Learning Center's annual report, 1994-95. Levelland, TX: South Plains College, Learning Center. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 385 302)

The Learning Center (LC) at South Plains College (SPC), in Texas, was established to provide remedial instruction in learning strategies, reading, and writing; college-level instruction in critical thinking and human development; tutorial assistance; study skills seminars; and other services. During the 1994-95 academic year, over 3,466 students were served, representing a 41.9% increase over the previous year and including 1,342 who received tutorial assistance and 1,124 who attended study seminars. Student evaluations of
LC instruction carried out in fall 1994 resulted in a mean rating of 4.562 on a 5-point scale, consistent with SPC's institutional mean of 4.5. However, results from the state Texas Academic Skills Program (TASP) assessment test indicate that SPC students performed at lower levels in 1994-95 than in previous years and that they performed more poorly than students statewide. Of the 1,129 SPC students who attempted the TASP Math test, for example, only 44% met the remediation standard and 126 students failed all 3 parts of the TASP. Case studies of three of these failing students revealed that in each case proper advisement could have directed the students to appropriate remedial courses that would have improved their chances for success. Finally, the faculty of the LC, which includes five professional developmental educators, participated in a process of Continuous Quality Management to improve instruction and have identified the need for greater availability of computers to enhance LC services. (June 1995 TASP data and a class reaction survey
instrument are appended.)

Policelli, G., & O'Neil, J. M. (1990). Videotaped academic information promoting student
development. Journal of College Student Development, 31, 179-181.

This article discusses a videotaped project which was based on inter-agency cooperation and on clear plan. The first step was dialoguing with the academic vice president, dean and department heads about their interest in the project. The department heads of all undergraduate majors selected faculty members to participate. These faculty members were contacted and sent an information packet. The videotapes are made available to students at a "Major Center" where students can do self-assessment, converse with counselors, and view the videotapes of their choice.

Polson, C. J. (1994). Developmental advising for nontraditional students. Adult Learning, 6,
21-22,28.

Developmental advising is the process of helping nontraditional students adjust to academic life, seek individual growth, and set goals. Advisors should use all campus and community resources in helping nontraditional students.

Railsback, G., & Colby, A. (1988). Improving academic advising at the community college (ERIC Digest). Los Angeles: ERIC Clearinghouse for Junior Colleges. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 320 647)

While there is general consensus on the importance of good academic advising to student
success and support for the American College Testing Program's developmental concept of
advising, there is less agreement on the most effective model for delivery. Research suggests
that both faculty-oriented advising and professional counselor-oriented systems may have
fallen short of their intended purposes. Concern for the quality of academic advising and
recognition of the important role it can play in promoting student retention and success
underpin current efforts to improve advising. Steps to improve academic advising include
the following: (1) preparing, reviewing, and revising a written plan detailing the goals and
functions of academic advising; (2) screening potential advisors and informing them that they
must be willing to do more than help students schedule classes; (3) requiring that students
meet on a regular basis with their advisors; (4) implementing advising programs in which
counselors and teachers work together as a team; (5) rewarding the efforts of those involved
in academic advising; (6) training advisors in basic counseling skills and techniques and
providing simulation and role-playing activities; (7) using computers in academic
advisement; and (8) assessing students and administrators to determine if the advising system
is meeting its goals.

Raushi, T. M. (1992). Developmental academic advising. New Directions for Community
Colleges, 21, 5-19.

Describes developmental academic advising as a comprehensive, collaborative, and empowering process designed to maximize students' educational potential. Reviews basic developmental theories (i.e., psychosocial, cognitive-developmental, and person-environmental), and focussed theories dealing with adult learners, women, people of color, and gays and lesbians. Discusses the implications of each developmental theory for academic advisement.

Rice, M. B., & Brown, R. D. (1990). Developmental factors associated with self-perceptions of mentoring competence and mentoring needs. Journal of College Student Development, 31, 293-299.

This study explored possible answers to such questions as what developmental characteristics should students have who serve as peer mentors or as student mentees, by investigating the relationship between college students' developmental statuses and their self-perceptions of their competence to serve as mentors for other students and their perceptions of their own readiness to be mentees. It also investigated students' interests in a variety of topics (e.g. career exploration) as the focus of the mentoring relationship and what characteristics students wanted mentors to have.

Rideout, C. A., & Richardson, S. A. (1989). A teambuilding model: Appreciating differences using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator with developmental theory. Journal of Counseling and Development, 67, 529-33.

Presents a team-building model using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and female/male developmental theory. Concludes that effective team building is a critical aspect of management and the concept of appreciation of differences through understanding personal types and female/male developmental issues adds dimensions to team building.

Robbins, W. A. (1982, February). The role of counseling in community college developmental programs: A framework for consideration. Paper presented at Developmental Education Conference, Phoenix, AZ. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 213 454)

The provision of counseling services, especially for community college students in need of developmental education, will continue to be a task of major importance in the coming decade. However, if counselors are to be effective in helping these students, they must select, implement, and mesh their strategies with other college personnel within a framework of five essential, interacting elements. First, the focus and purpose of developmental education must be established and counseling strategies framed within the context of an agreed upon definition of developmental education. Second, agreement on the philosophical basis of student development theory should give meaning and coherence to a college's program of developmental education. Third, a clear definition of the target student clientele of such a program must be established and criteria for inclusion in such programs identified. Fourth, the entire resources of a college should constitute the support system for developmental education students. Fifth, programs, activities, and strategies can then be constructed to develop a counseling program which is responsive to student needs and clear in its educational and philosophical objectives.

Robbins, W. A. (1983). Counseling for today's community college students. New Directions for Community Colleges, 11, 5-17.

Contrasts developmental counseling with traditional counseling, arguing that it differs in its focus on consultation, advisement, instruction, and collaborative skills. Discusses the crises currently confronting counseling and argues for a clear demonstration of professionalism.

Roper, L. D., & McKenzie, A. (1988). Academic advising: A developmental model for black student-athletes. NASPA Journal, 26, 91-98.

This article presents a model for a comprehensive developmental approach to advising black student-athletes which relies on these five growth dimensions: symbolization, allocentrism, integration, stability, and autonomy. The authors suggest that the dimensions of development are interdependent and must be balanced in order for an athlete to grow in a well-rounded way. Although the program was developed with black student-athletes in mind, it is important to note that the developmental issues addressed may be applied to all
athletes.

Santa-Rita, E. (1992). Educational advising for student retention. New York: Bronx Community College, Dept. of Student Development. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 360 020)

Drawing from the literature and research on educational advising and student retention, this handbook provides practical guidelines on advising students, based on five propositions. The propositions are that: (1) educational advisement should be designed to provide accurate, consistent, accessible information for students concerning their progress within their curriculum; (2) the best single indication of the likelihood of college persistence is the student's ability to cope with academic problems; (3) educational advising should be career
focused; (4) the quality of student-faculty interaction is a major contributing variable to college holding power; and (5) the premier goal of educational advising is a full response to the student's needs. Each of the five sections of the handbook deals with one of these propositions. Part 1 deals with providing information to different categories of students, including returning, entering, freshmen, English-as-a-Second-Language, international, undecided, change of major, transfer, part-time, and probationary students. Part 2 suggests
ways of helping students cope with 19 difference academic problems. Part 3 deals with 15 categories of difficulties encountered in the course of making a decision about a career. Part 4 reviews seven ways of responding to students who come for advisement. Finally, part 5 outlines the method of making an effective referral and summarizes referral skills. Each section concludes with case studies and specific recommendations. An academic advisor checklist and evaluation form used at Bronx Community College and responses to case problems are included.

Schein, H. (1985). Using residence halls in the academic advising process: Three big-ten models . (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 272 781)

This report presents a strong case for integrating academic advising into the residential setting. Eight features of the setting are noted: 1) residence hall staff has continuous contact with students, 2) they know students individually, 3) they have good communications networks, 4) they can identify troubled students earlier than other departments, 5) students know these staff members care, 6) students usually talk about psycho-social development in their first two years of college rather than about intellectual development, 7) residence halls
can provide an accessible informal atmosphere, and 8) the student network will give very immediate feedback on all issues.

Schein, H., Biggers, D., & Reese, V. (1986). The role of university residence halls in the academic advising process. NACADA Journal, 6, 67-75.

Residence halls are appropriate environments for developmentally oriented advising programs. Ways for advising personnel to tap into this residence hall resource are suggested. A description of how residence halls are structured, an annotated access scheme, and models of three universities are presented. The residence hall environment may solve the problem of introducing the life-skills approach that developmental academic advising theory advocates in a setting that encourages the real life interaction between students and advisors
that the more formal academic setting formally imposes, and makes group advising a more realistic possibility.

Schuh, J. H. (1989). A student development theory to practice workshops. Journal of Counseling and Development, 67, 297-298.

This article discusses a workshop developed to introduce to student paraprofessionals, student development theory that ties program planning directly to that theory. Specifically, this workshop introduced basic concepts about theory, attempts to present typical student behaviors that explain the theory, and encourages paraprofessionals to identify programs and activities that enhance various dimensions of student development theory.

Selke, M. J. & Wong, T. D. (1993). The mentoring-empowered model: Professional role functions in graduate student advisement. NACADA Journal, 13, 21-26.

This article outlines a developmental/psychosocial framework for graduate student advising based on existing conceptions of graduate student advisement, knowledge about educational mentoring, and human development theory. The model identifies graduate advisors with six characteristics essential to creating a developmental context for advisement and five behavior-specific role functions to facilitate implementation.

Shane, D. (1981). Academic advising in higher education: A developmental approach for college students of all ages. NACADA Journal, 1, 12-23.

The Potter Model, a general, functional overview of the advising process, is discussed. The advising needs of a particular college student, it is suggested, are unique and rest upon the programmatic, developmental, and intra-personal needs of that individual at a particular moment. Examination of types of advising in one office over 12 months revealed that analytic advising was most common, followed by informational advising; explanatory and therapeutic advising was much more rare. All types of advising should aim to facilitate
student development.

Sidel-McCullough, C. M. (1980). Personal development and comprehensive support services. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. 209 987)

Holistic educational advancement programs that are designed to develop the potential of underprepared and disadvantaged students are considered. Obstacles to success that might confront disadvantaged students include problems in adjustment to university life, loneliness, and negative self-concept. It is suggested that support services should be integrated with a reinforcement of the broader curriculum. The holistic approach is designed to help students persist in their studies and attain success and satisfaction. Counseling is designed to enhance the growth of personal identity, student motivation, sense of direction, confidence, skills, and
involvement with the educational institution and its members.

Skulicz, M. (1986). An English placement and tracking system. Research & Teaching in Developmental Education, 2, 21-31.

Describes Erie Community College's computerized system to help curriculum advisors better assess each student's reading and writing competency level and track their completion of required courses. Illustrates the system's provision of information on placement tests and developmental courses taken, and whether a required composition course has been completed.

Somers, R. L. (1988). Working with the adult learner: Applied androgyny for developmental programs. Boone, NC: Appalachian State University, National Center for Developmental Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 299 404)

The concept of androgyny is posited on four key assumptions about adult learners that distinguish them from child learners and that thus abrogate the premises upon which traditional pedagogy is based. In traditional pedagogy, the role of the learner is one of dependency. Androgyny, on the other hand, recognizes the deep psychological need of adults to be self-directing, and the androgynous model encourages teachers to nurture and encourages learners' natural maturation toward independence. The second postulate on which androgyny is based is that of the valued role of the learner's experience. This accumulated experience makes adult learners capable of peer helping and learning and thus makes group teaching methods better suited for adult learners than are passive information transmittal techniques. The third assumption is that of adults' readiness to learn, and the fourth is that of their psychological orientation to learning. In view of these assumptions, adult educators should use techniques to accelerate their students' readiness to learn, including self-appraisal, career counseling, and simulation. (An annotated bibliography of 20 items is included.)

Stage, F. K. (1987). Outcomes and development: Separate notions or parts of one whole (ASHE Annual Meeting Paper). Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for the Study of Higher Education, Baltimore, MD. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 292 402)

The literature on the development of college students is discussed, and recommendations are offered for developing a course on student development theory and research. The following observations about the literature are considered: (1) the literature on the college student is actually two separate literatures, one focused on outcomes and the other on development, and there are few links to guide meaningful synthesis; (2) the literature is largely monocultural, focusing on white upper and middle class students at large residential research universities; and (3) there is a lack of process models that tie directly to specific theory and that can be used to guide practice on college campuses. The outcomes approach is more sociological and uses demographic data to assess broadly defined groups of students. The student development approach takes a more psychological approach and uses theories to identify developmental levels or tasks of students. It is suggested that in courses on college student development both bodies of literature be used. To locate readings on students who are not part of the dominant culture, readings from other disciplines such as counseling may need to be tapped. Included are 28 references.

Stage, F. K. (1991). Common elements of theory: A framework for college student development. Journal of College Student Development, 32, 56-61.

The purpose of this article is to present common elements of student development theory as a useful framework for practice and further research. The author first provides a brief discussion of problems using student development theory in practice. Next, a discussion of common elements of student development theory and research. A framework for practice and research is discussed. In conclusion, the author suggests incorporating broader perspectives for inquiry so that knowledge sought more closely matches the profession's
needs.

Stodt, M. M. (1987). Intentional student development and retention. In M. M. Stodt, and W. M. Klepper (Eds), Increasing retention: Academic and student affairs administrators in partnership. New Directions for Higher Education No. 60. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

The synergy among quality education, student development, and retention as goals for an educational institution provided the impetus for a group of colleges and universities to form a 12-institution consortium. The preeminent requirement for success along all three paths was collaboration between the academic and student affairs domains.

Stokes, D. R., et al. (1988). Multicultural peer counseling: A developmental perspective and rationale. Journal of Counseling and Development, 67, 55-56.

This article focuses on the creation and growth of a peer counseling program assisting ethnic minority college students. A brief rationale of the program is offered. Problems are described and recommendations are made for subsequent program developments. Results reveal that the program seems to have been instrumental in promoting the professional growth and development of the peers.

Stonewater, B. B. (1987). Career traits, decision style, and gilligan: Implications for counseling women. Journal of the National Association of Women Deans, Administrators, and Counselors, 50, 17-26.

Explored gender differences in two career-related areas--traits, or personality, and decision-making style--and interpreted findings in light of Gilligan's developmental theory. Indicated that women in the sample had a greater tendency to be Social or Conventional Holland types, and External decision makers on the Johnson Decision Making Inventory.

Stowe, D. E. (1996). Postmodern view of advisement in higher education. NACADA Journal, 16, 16-18.

Examines implications of postmodernism, particularly chaos theory, for academic advising.
Suggests that postmodernist advising acknowledges student angst and self-doubt, views each
individual as a unique person and each advising session as a unique opportunity, views
change as an ally rather than nemesis, and believes the advisor's impact is not predictable
or linear.

Super, D. E. (1983). Assessment in career guidance: Toward truly developmental counseling
Personnel and Guidance Journal, 61, 555-62.

Discusses the matching model of assessment in educational and vocational counseling and
suggests that it inhibits developmental counseling. A stage-theory model is proposed instead
and is case illustrated. The career development model emphasizes autonomy, commitment,
career maturity, and a good match of developing interests with career roles.

Super, D. E., et al. (1992). Developmental career assessment and counseling: The C-DAC model. Journal of Counseling and Development, 71, 74-80.

Discusses Career-Development Assessment and Counseling model, which implements current development theory and uses innovative assessment measures and improved counseling methods to improve vocational and life career counseling. Focuses on assessment, treating interests and preferences as basic status data to be viewed in light of career maturity, salience of life roles, and values sought in life as moderator variables.

Sweet, T. W. (1990). A study of an intensive developmental counseling program with the student athlete. College Student Journal, 24, 212-219.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effectiveness of an intensive developmental counseling program for student athletes. Student Developmental Task Inventory (SDTI-2) were used to promote the accomplishment of developmental task necessary for success in college. Students were randomly assigned to the control and treatment groups. Results from the SDTI-2 indicated that the treatment group performed significantly higher than the control group on two of three subtasks.

Tacha, D. R. Advising and interacting outside the classroom. In P. G. Friedman, and R. C. Jenkins- Friedman (Eds.), Fostering academic excellence through honors programs. New Directions for Teaching and Learning No. 25. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

The development of intellectually challenging and personally supportive faculty-student relationships outside of formal learning contexts is crucial to excellence in honors level education, and can be fostered through a faculty advising and mentor program.

Terenzini, P. T. and Pascarella, E. T. (1980). Student and faculty relationships and freshman year educational outcomes: A further investigation. Journal of College Student Personnel, 21, 521-528.

This study focuses on the positive influences of informal contact with faculty on students' academic achievement, intellectual and personal development. The degree to which the quality and frequency of these contacts were positively associated with intellectual and personal development were assessed. The results indicate that not all types of student/faculty informal contacts are equal in their influence on freshman year outcomes.

Twale, D. J. (1989). Social and academic development in freshman orientation: A time frame. NASPA Journal, 27, 160-167.

This article categorizes for college orientation staff a social and academic diversity of developmentally-oriented programs and activities offered in terms of their time frameworks: summer or pre-college programs, freshman week activities, short-term seminars and workshops, term or semester courses, and year-long ongoing programs. The areas include traditional activities, innovative programs, parent activities, minority programs, remedial services, and commuter affairs. If freshman orientation is one remedy for freshman
disorientation, then through careful preparation, counseling and advising, the college or university can assist each new student to emerge as a new individual.

Vondracek, F. W., & Schulenberg, J. (1992). Counseling for normative and nonnormative influenceson career development. Career Development Quarterly, 40, 291-301.

Discusses how concepts from fields of lifespan developmental psychology and human development could be usefully applied to career intervention. Conceptualizes career counseling as human development intervention to allow a more differentiated and comprehensive view of normative and nonnormative factors that affect career development.

Welfel, E. R. (1982). The development of reflective judgment: Implications for career counseling of college students. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 61, 17-21.

Outlines seven stages of the reflective judgment model of intellectual development. Discusses implications of the model for effective career counseling of college students. Explores the theory's career counseling implications for two of the stages.

White, D. B., & Hood, A. B. (1989). An assessment of the validity of Chickering's theory of student development. Journal of College Student Development, 30, 354-361.

The purpose of this article was to provide empirical validation, by means of factor-analytic technique, for Chickering's vectors of student development. The study was also designed to provide information regarding the reliability and validity of each of the Iowa Instruments. Seven instruments were used to assess significant aspects of Chickering's theory. A factor analysis of subscale scores provided only limited evidence to support the theory.

Widick, C., Knefelkamp, L. L., & Parker, C.A. (1975). The counselor as a developmental instructor.Counselor Education and Supervision, 14, 286-296.

In this article, the role of a developmental instruction is described as the use of information about students to structure classroom environments to maximize personal growth and mastery of subject matter. Developmental change was assessed according to Perry's model of ethical and intellectual development of college students. Results indicated that 28 of 31 students showed positive change.

Williams, C. P. (1990, March). Developmental tasks of the maintenance stage of career developmentand implications for counselors. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American Association for Counseling and Development, Cincinnati, OH. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 320 097)

This study empirically examined the tasks of the maintenance stage of career development as posited by Super (1957), which include holding one's own, keeping up with new developments, and breaking new ground. Participants included upper and mid-level managers in a health care organization. The participants were between the ages of 35 and 64 and had identified themselves as being in the maintenance stage as described in a checklist completed at the beginning of the study. An open-ended question format was used which
asked participants to list major career concerns which they had at the present time and the way in which they were dealing with those concerns. Principal component analysis of the data resulted in six latent components. They were: (1) keeping up with new developments; (2) questioning further direction and goals; (3) struggling to hold on; (4) pursuing further education; (5) preparing for retirement; and (6) demonstrating managerial competence and shifting focus. These six components were inferred to represent the developmental tasks of
maintenance. As such, they support Super's conceptual model of maintenance. Given the high percentage of people in the maintenance stage of career development, it seems critical that more attention be given to understanding the career development issues of persons at this juncture.

Winston, R. B. (1990). The Student Developmental Task and Lifestyle Inventory: An approach to measuring students' psychosocial development. Journal of College Student Development, 31, 108-120.

An instrument titled the Student Developmental Task and Lifestyle Inventory designed to measure certain aspects of Chickering's theory of the psychosocial development of traditional age college students was developed. The process used in constructing the instrument is described, and reliability and validity studies are summarized. Studies conducted with different student subpopulations at several institutions showed acceptable reliability estimates for the SDTLI. Correlational studies were also conducted with related well-established instruments.

Winston, R. and Sandor, J. (1984). Developmental academic advising: What do students want? NACADA Journal, 4, 5-13.

An academic advising inventory was developed to determine student preferences for developmental advising. Crookston's definition of advising as prescriptive or developmental was used as the basis for inventory items. Results indicate that students want an advising relationship that can be characterized as developmental. The prescriptive item was preferred by more than half of the students in only two cases: The advisor taking the initiative in informing the student about programs and courses and about college policies. Ratings were
unaffected by student gender and class standing

Winston, R., et al. (1981). Assessing student development: A developmental task approach. Journal of College Student Personnel, 22, 429-435.

To effectively encourage change among college students who desire to initiate activities and processes that will enhance their personal growth, it is first necessary to help them assess their present level of development. This article describes the Student Development Inventory and discusses its development reliability, and validity and its suggested uses with students.

Winston, R. B., Ender, S. C. and Miller, T. K. (1982). Developmental approaches to academic advising. New Directions for Student Services, no. 17. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

In this volume, academic advising is examined from the perspective of student developmental theory. A rationale and definition of developmental advising are provided. An overview of psychosocial and cognitive theories of human development are outlined. Delivery systems, evaluation techniques and special populations are examined from a developmental perspective.

Winston, R., Miller, T., Ender, S. and Grites, T. (1984). Developmental Academic Advising. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

This volume is composed of chapters written by many advising professionals on topics related to advising from a developmental perspective. Part One: Academic advising for student development, provides a theoretical foundation and a description of current practices. The advising process is described in Part Two which includes strategies such as educational and career planning and advising students with special needs. Part Three describes delivery systems and the institutional context, administrative issues, legal issues
and training. The last part describes model advising programs.

Wise, S. L. (1986). The use of ordering theory in the measurement of student development. Journal of College Student Personnel, 27, 442-47.

Presents ordering theory as a useful method in the identification and validation of logical hierarchies among tasks that measure student development. An example shows the application of ordering theory to the measurement of college students' decision making about careers.

Woolfe, R., et al. (1987). Guidance and counselling in adult and continuing education. A developmental perspective. Philadelphia: Open University Press, Open University Educational. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 299 378)

Educational provision for adults (including counseling) only makes sense when viewed from a developmental life setting. Counselors working with adults must be aware of the adult life cycle as a process of continuing change and development. They must also realize that each individual life is lived through an opportunity structure. In other words, because the social context of an individual's life heavily influences his or her expectations and aspirations, adult development must be examined in terms of an interaction between psychological and sociological factors. Adult educators do not need special training or the title of "counselor"
to use the methods and skills of counseling in their work. It may be argued that the teaching of adults in itself constitutes a form of counseling. Counseling at a distance is an important and growing area for a large number of persons working in the field of continuing education for adults. Guidance and counseling can be conceived as opposite ends of a continuum concerned with the nature of the relationship between helpers and those seeking or needing help. Counselors of adults are called upon to provide information and counseling in a variety of areas, including work, unemployment, and retirement.

Wright, D. J. (1982). Advisors and advisees: Developing responsible advising relationships. An examination of self-disclosure within advising. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 232 099)

Advising as a developmental process assists students in 1) achieving personal identity, 2) developing a moral or ethical system, 3) searching for new ways to view reality, 4) sorting out familial relationships, and 5) developing skills to cope with new life situations. This literature review examines advising as a social exchange process and lists those variables which may increase self-disclosure in advising. Potential advantages of examining self-disclosure are detailed within a developmental framework.